View source for Tao Te Ching

{{short description|Chinese classic text}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Italic title}}
{{Infobox book
| name              = Tao Te Ching
| title_orig        = 道德經
| image             = Mawangdui LaoTsu Ms2.JPG
| caption           = Ink on silk manuscript of the ''Tao Te Ching'', 2nd century BC, unearthed from [[Mawangdui]]
| orig_lang_code    = zh
| author            = [[Laozi]] (traditionally credited)
| country           = China ([[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]])
| release_date      = 4th century BC
| language          = [[Classical Chinese]]
| media_type        = 
| english_pub_date  = 1868
| native_wikisource = 道德經
| wikisource        = Tao Te Ching
| genre             = Philosophy
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
|title=Tao Te Ching|pic=File:Changchun-Temple-TaiQingDian-DaoDeJing-0315.jpg|t=道德經|s=道德经|showflag=wp|j=Dou6dak1 Ging1|ci={{IPAc-yue|d|ou|6|.|d|ak|1|-|g|ing|1}}|y=Douhdāk Gīng|wuu=Dau Teh Cin|poj=Tō-tek-keng|tl=Tō-tik-king|w={{Audio|Chinese-TaoTeChing.ogg|Tao⁴ Tê² Ching¹|help= no}}|p=Dàodé Jīng|bpmf=ㄉㄠˋ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄉㄜˊ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄐㄧㄥ|mi={{IPAc-cmn|d|ao|4|-|d|e|2|-|j|ing|1}}|gr=Dawder Jing|myr=Dàudé Jīng|oc-bs=&#42;{{IPA|[kə.l]ˤuʔ tˤək k-lˤeŋ}}|l="Classic of [[Tao|the Way]] and [[De (Chinese)|Virtue]]"|mc=Dɑu<sup>X</sup> Tək̚ Keŋ|altname={{nowrap|[[Laozi]]'s Tao Te Ching}}|t2=老子道德經|s2=老子道德经|p2=Lǎozǐ Dàodé Jīng|w2=Lao³ Tzŭ³ Tao⁴&nbsp;Tê²&nbsp;Ching¹|mi2={{IPAc-cmn|l|ao|2|-|zi|3|-|d|ao|4|-|d|e|2|-|j|ing|1}}|gr2=Laotzyy Dawder Jing|bpmf2=ㄌㄠˇ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄗˇ<br />ㄉㄠˋ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄉㄜˊ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄐㄧㄥ|myr2=Lǎudž Dàudé Jīng|j2=Lou5zi2 Dou6dak1 Ging1|y2=Lóuhjí Douhdāk Gīng|ci2={{IPAc-yue|l|ou|5|.|z|i|2|-|d|ou|6|.|d|ak|1|-|g|ing|1}}|poj2=Ló-chú Tō-tek-keng|tl2=Ló-tsú Tō-tik-king|oc-bs2=&#42;{{IPA|C.rˤuʔ tsəʔ<br />[kə.l]ˤuʔ tˤək k-lˤeŋ}}|altname3=Daode Zhenjing|t3=道德真經|s3=道德真经|p3=Dàodé Zhēnjīng|w3=Tao⁴ Tê² Chên¹ Ching¹|bpmf3=ㄉㄠˋ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄉㄜˊ<br />ㄓㄣ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄐㄧㄥ|mi3={{IPAc-cmn|d|ao|4|-|d|e|2|-|zh|en|1|-|j|ing|1}}|gr3=Dawder Jenjing|myr3=Dàudé Jēnjīng|oc-bs3=&#42;{{IPA|[kə.l]ˤuʔ tˤək ti[n] k-lˤeŋ}}|l3="[[Sutra]] of the Way and Its Power"}}
{{Infobox Chinese
|title=Other names|altname=Laozi|pic=Laozi (Chinese characters).svg|piccap="Laozi" in [[seal script]] (top) and [[kaishu|regular]] (bottom) Chinese characters|picupright=0.5|c2=老子|l2="Old Master"|p2=Lǎozǐ|w2=Lao³ Tzŭ³|mi2={{IPAc-cmn|l|ao|2|-|zi|3}}|gr2=Laotzyy|bpmf2=ㄌㄠˇ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄗˇ|myr2=Lǎudž|suz2=Lâ-tsỳ|j2=Lou5zi2|y2=Lóuhjí|ci2={{IPAc-yue|l|ou|5|.|z|i|2}}|poj2=Ló-chú|tl2=Ló-tsú|oc-bs2=&#42;{{IPA|C.rˤuʔ tsəʔ}}|altname3=5000-Character Classic|c3=五千文|p3=Wǔqiān Wén|mi3={{IPAc-cmn|wu|3|-|q|yan|1|-|wen|2}}|gr3=Wuuchian Wen|myr3=Wǔchyān Wén|w3=Wu³ Ch‘ien¹ Wên²|bpmf3=ㄨˇ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄒㄧㄢ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄨㄣˊ|oc-bs3=&#42;C.ŋˤaʔ s.n̥ˤi[ŋ] mə[n]|l3="The 5000 [[Chinese characters|Characters]]"|showflag=wp}}
{{Taoism}}

The '''''Tao Te Ching''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|t|aʊ|t|iː|ˈ|tʃ|ɪ|ŋ}},<ref>{{Lexico|Tao-te-Ching}}</ref> {{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|aʊ|_|d|ɛ|_|ˈ|dʒ|ɪ|ŋ}};<ref>{{Dictionary.com|Tao Te Ching|accessdate=2020-06-23}}</ref> {{zh|s=道德经|t=道德經|p='''Dàodé Jīng'''}} {{IPAc-cmn|AUD|Chinese-TaoTeChing.ogg|d|ao|4|-|d|e|2|-|j|ing|1}}),{{efn|Less common former romanizations include '''''Tao-te-king''''',{{sfnp|Julien|1842|p=[https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=Ll5TAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR2 ii]}} '''''Tau Tĕh King'''''<ref name=chalv>{{harvp|Chalmers|1868|p=[https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=yxFBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR5 v] }}.</ref> and '''''Tao Teh King'''''.<ref name=legge>{{harvp|Legge & al.|1891}}.</ref><ref name=suziq>{{harvp|Suzuki & al.|1913}}.</ref>}} also known as '''''Lao Tzu''''' or '''''Laozi''''',<ref name="Ellwood2008">{{cite book|last=Ellwood|first=Robert S.|title=The Encyclopedia of World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1pGbdI4L0qsC&pg=PA262|year=2008|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1038-7|page=262}}</ref> is a [[Chinese classic text]] traditionally credited to the 6th-century BC sage [[Laozi]]. The text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated.<ref>{{harvp|Eliade|1984|p=26}}</ref> The oldest excavated portion dates back to the late 4th century BC,<ref name="stanford" /> but modern scholarship dates other parts of the text as having been written—or at least compiled—later than the earliest portions of the ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]''.<ref>Creel 1970, What is Taoism? 75</ref>

The ''Tao Te Ching'', along with the ''Zhuangzi'', is a fundamental text for both philosophical and religious [[Taoism]]. It also strongly influenced other schools of [[Chinese philosophy]] and [[Religion in China|religion]], including [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]], [[Confucianism]], and [[Chinese Buddhism|Buddhism]], which was largely interpreted through the use of Taoist words and concepts when it was originally introduced to China. Many artists, including [[Chinese poetry|poets]], [[Chinese painting|painters]], [[calligraphy|calligraphers]], and [[Chinese garden|gardeners]], have used the ''Tao Te Ching'' as a source of inspiration. Its influence has spread widely outside East Asia and it is among the most translated works in world literature.<ref name=stanford>{{harvp|Chan|2013}}.</ref>

==Title==
In English, the title is commonly rendered ''Tao Te Ching'' {{IPAc-en|ˌ|t|aʊ|t|iː|ˈ|tʃ|ɪ|ŋ}}, following Wade-Giles romanization, or ''Dao De Jing'' {{IPAc-en|ˌ|d|aʊ|d|ɛ|ˈ|dʒ|ɪ|ŋ}}, following pinyin.

The [[Chinese characters]] in the title ({{zh|t=道德經|w=Tao⁴ Tê² Ching¹|p=Dàodéjīng}}) are:

:{{lang|zh-hant|[[Tao|道]]}} ({{zh|p=dào|w=tao⁴}}) literally means "way", or one of its synonyms, but was extended to mean "the Way". This term, which was variously used by other Chinese philosophers (including [[Confucius]], [[Mencius]], [[Mozi]], and [[Hanfeizi]]), has special meaning within the context of Taoism, where it implies the essential, unnameable process of the universe.

:{{lang|zh-hant|[[De (Chinese)|德]]}} ({{zh|p=dé|w=tê²}}) means "virtue", "personal character", "inner strength" (virtuosity), or "integrity". The semantics of this Chinese word resemble English ''virtue'', which developed from the Italian ''[[virtù]]'', an archaic sense of "inner potency" or "divine power" (as in "healing virtue of a drug") to the modern meaning of "moral excellence" or "goodness". Compare the [[compound word]] {{lang|zh-hant|道德}} ({{zh|p=dàodé|w=tao⁴-tê²}}), literally "ethics", "ethical principles", "morals" or "morality".''

:{{lang|zh-hant|經}} ({{zh|p=jīng|w=ching¹}}) as it is used here means "canon", "great book", or "classic".

The first character can be considered to modify the second or can be understood as standing alongside it in modifying the third. Thus, the ''Tao Te Ching'' can be translated as ''The Classic of the Way's Virtue(s)'',{{citation needed|date=December 2017}} ''The Book of the [[Tao]] and Its Virtue'',{{sfnp|Kohn & al.|1998|p=[https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=NXdzosdR0JUC&pg=PA1 1]}} or ''The Book of the Way and of Virtue''.{{sfnp|Julien|1842}}{{sfnp|Giles & al.|1905|loc=[[:s:The Sayings of Lao Tzu/Introduction|Introduction]]}} It has also been translated as ''The Tao and its Characteristics'',<ref name=legge/> ''The Canon of Reason and Virtue'',<ref name=suziq/> ''The Classic Book of Integrity and the Way'',{{sfnp|Mair|1990}} and ''A Treatise on the Principle and Its Action''.{{sfnp|Wieger|1913|p=[[:s:fr:Les pères du système taoïste/Préface#3|3]]}}{{sfnp|Bryce & al.|1991|p=[https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=aMLE056g6MsC&pg=PR9 ix]}}

Ancient Chinese books were commonly referenced by the name of their real or supposed author, in this case the "Old Master",{{sfnp|Chalmers|1868|p=[https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=yxFBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR9 ix]}} [[Laozi]]. As such, the ''Tao Te Ching'' is also sometimes referred to as the ''Laozi'', especially in Chinese sources.<ref name="stanford" />

The title "Daodejing", with its status as a classic, was only first applied from the reign of [[Emperor Jing of Han]] (157–141 BCE) onward.<ref>Seidel, Anna. 1969. ''La divinisation de Lao tseu dans le taoïsme des Han.'' Paris: École française d’Extrême‑Orient. 24, 50</ref> Other titles of the work include the honorific "[[Sutra]] (or "Perfect Scripture") of the Way and Its Power" (''Daode Zhenjing'') and the descriptive "5,000-[[Chinese character|Character]] Classic" (''Wuqian Wen'').

==Text==
The ''Tao Te Ching'' has a long and complex textual history. Known versions and commentaries date back two millennia, including ancient bamboo, silk, and paper manuscripts discovered in the twentieth century.

===Internal structure===
The ''Tao Te Ching'' is a short text of around 5,000 [[Chinese characters]] in 81 brief chapters or sections ({{lang|zh-hant|章}}). There is some evidence that the chapter divisions were later additions—for commentary, or as aids to rote memorization—and that the original text was more fluidly organized. It has two parts, the ''Tao Ching'' ({{lang|zh-hant|道經}}; chapters 1–37) and the ''Te Ching'' ({{lang|zh-hant|德經}}; chapters 38–81), which may have been edited together into the received text, possibly reversed from an original ''Te Tao Ching''. The written style is laconic, has few [[grammatical particle]]s, and encourages varied, contradictory interpretations. The ideas are singular; the style poetic. The rhetorical style combines two major strategies: short, declarative statements and intentional contradictions. The first of these strategies creates memorable phrases, while the second forces the reader to reconcile supposed contradictions.<ref>Austin, Michael (2010). "Reading the World: Ideas that Matter", p. 158. W. W. Norton & Company, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-393-93349-9}}.</ref>

The Chinese characters in the original versions were probably written in ''zhuànshū'' (篆書 [[seal script]]), while later versions were written in ''lìshū'' (隸書 [[clerical script]]) and ''kǎishū'' (楷書 [[regular script]]) styles.

===Historical authenticity of the author===
The ''Tao Te Ching'' is ascribed to [[Laozi]], whose historical existence has been a matter of scholarly debate. His name, which means "Old Master", has only fueled controversy on this issue.<ref>Feng Cao. "Daoism in Early China: Huang-Lao Thought in Light of Excavated Texts"; Palgrave Macmillan, 2017</ref>

[[File:Laozi.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Laozi]]]]
The first reliable reference to Laozi is his "biography" in ''[[Shiji]]'' (63, tr. Chan 1963:35–37), by Chinese historian [[Sima Qian]] (c. 145–86 BC), which combines three stories. In the first, Laozi was a contemporary of [[Confucius]] (551–479 BC). His surname was Li ({{lang|zh-hant|李}} "plum"), and his personal name was Er ({{lang|zh-hant|耳}} "ear") or Dan ({{lang|zh-hant|聃}} "long ear"). He was an official in the imperial archives, and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the West; at the request of the keeper of the Han-ku Pass, [[Yinxi]], Laozi composed the ''Tao Te Ching''. Second, Laozi was Lao Laizi ({{lang|zh-hans|老莱子}} "Old Come Master"), also a contemporary of Confucius, who wrote a book in 15 parts. Third, Laozi was the grand historian and astrologer Lao Dan ({{lang|zh-hant|老聃}} "Old Long-ears"), who lived during the reign (384–362 BC) of Duke Xian ({{lang|zh-hant|獻公}}) of [[Qin (state)|Qin]].

Generations of scholars have debated the historicity of Laozi and the dating of the ''Tao Te Ching''. Linguistic studies of the text's vocabulary and [[rhyme]] scheme point to a date of composition after the ''[[Shijing]]'' yet before the ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]''. Legends claim variously that Laozi was "born old"; that he lived for 996 years, with twelve previous incarnations starting around the time of the Three Sovereigns before the thirteenth as Laozi. Some Western scholars have expressed doubts over Laozi's historical existence, claiming that the ''Tao Te Ching'' is actually a collection of the work of various authors.

Many Taoists venerate Laozi as ''Daotsu'', the founder of the school of Dao, the ''Daode Tianjun'' in the [[Three Pure Ones]], and one of the eight elders transformed from [[Taiji (philosophy)|Taiji]] in the [[Chinese creation myth]].

The predominant view among scholars today is that the text is a compilation or anthology representing multiple authors. The current text might have been compiled ''c'' 250 BCE, drawn from a wide range of texts dating back a century or two.<ref name=Stanford>Chan, Alan, "[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2018/entries/laozi/ Laozi]", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2018 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), retrieved 3 February 2020</ref>

===Principal versions===
Among the many transmitted editions of the ''Tao Te Ching'' text, the three primary ones are named after early commentaries. The "Yan Zun Version", which is only extant for the ''Te Ching'', derives from a commentary attributed to [[Han dynasty]] scholar Yan Zun ({{lang|zh-hant|巖尊}}, fl. 80 BC – 10 AD). The "Heshang Gong Version" is named after the legendary [[Heshang Gong]] ({{lang|zh-hant|河上公}} "Riverside Sage") who supposedly lived during the reign (180–157 BC) of [[Emperor Wen of Han]]. This commentary has a preface written by [[Ge Xuan]] ({{lang|zh-hant|葛玄}}, 164–244 AD), granduncle of [[Ge Hong]], and scholarship dates this version to around the 3rd century AD. The "Wang Bi Version" has more verifiable origins than either of the above. [[Wang Bi]] ({{lang|zh-hant|王弼}}, 226–249 AD) was a famous [[Three Kingdoms]] period philosopher and commentator on the ''Tao Te Ching'' and the ''[[I Ching]]''.

''Tao Te Ching'' scholarship has advanced from archeological discoveries of manuscripts, some of which are older than any of the received texts. Beginning in the 1920s and 1930s, [[Marc Aurel Stein]] and others found thousands of scrolls in the [[Mogao Caves]] near [[Dunhuang]]. They included more than 50 partial and complete "Tao Te Ching" manuscripts. One written by the scribe So/Su Dan (素統) is dated 270 AD and corresponds closely with the Heshang Gong version. Another partial manuscript has the Xiang'er ({{lang|zh-hant|想爾}}) commentary, which had previously been lost.<ref>William G. Boltz, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/615191 "The Religious and Philosophical Significance of the 'Hsiang erh' "Lao tzu" {{lang|zh-hant|相 爾 老 子}} in the Light of the "Ma-wang-tui" Silk Manuscripts"], ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'', 45 (1982), pp. 95ff</ref>

===Mawangdui and Guodian texts===
In 1973, archeologists discovered copies of early Chinese books, known as the [[Mawangdui Silk Texts]], in a tomb dating from 168 BC.<ref name=stanford/> They included two nearly complete copies of the text, referred to as Text A ({{lang|zh-hant|甲}}) and Text B ({{lang|zh-hant|乙}}), both of which reverse the traditional ordering and put the ''Te Ching'' section before the ''Tao Ching'', which is why the Henricks translation of them is named "Te-Tao Ching". Based on calligraphic styles and imperial [[naming taboo]] avoidances, scholars believe that Text A can be dated to about the first decade and Text B to about the third decade of the 2nd century BC.<ref>{{harvp|Boltz|1993|p=284}}</ref>

In 1993, the oldest known version of the text, written on bamboo tablets, was found in a tomb near the town of Guodian ({{lang|zh-hant|郭店}}) in [[Jingmen]], Hubei, and dated prior to 300 BC.<ref name=stanford/> The [[Guodian Chu Slips]] comprise about 800 slips of bamboo with a total of over 13,000 characters, about 2,000 of which correspond with the ''Tao Te Ching.''

Both the Mawangdui and Guodian versions are generally consistent with the received texts, excepting differences in chapter sequence and graphic variants. Several recent ''Tao Te Ching'' translations utilize these two versions, sometimes with the verses reordered to synthesize the new finds.<ref>See {{harvp|Lau|1989}}, {{harvp|Henricks|1989}}, {{harvp|Mair |1990}}, Henricks 2000, Allan and Williams 2000, and Roberts 2004</ref>

===Themes===
The text concerns itself with the Dao (or "Way"), and how it is expressed by virtue (''de''). Specifically, the text emphasizes the virtues of naturalness (''ziran'') and non-action (''wuwei'').<ref name=Stanford/>

==Versions and translations==
The ''Tao Te Ching'' has been translated into Western languages over 250 times, mostly to English, German, and French.{{sfnp|LaFargue & al.|1998|p=277}} According to Holmes Welch, "It is a famous puzzle which everyone would like to feel he had solved."<ref>{{harvp|Welch|1965|p=7}}</ref> The first English translation of the ''Tao Te Ching'' was produced in 1868 by the [[Scottish people|Scottish]] Protestant missionary [[John Chalmers (missionary)|John Chalmers]], entitled ''The Speculations on Metaphysics, Polity, and Morality of the "Old Philosopher" Lau-tsze''.{{sfnp|Chalmers|1868}} It was heavily indebted{{sfnp|Chalmers|1868|p=[https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=yxFBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR19 xix]}} to [[Stanislas Julien|Julien]]'s French translation{{sfnp|Julien|1842}} and dedicated to [[James Legge]],<ref name=chalv/> who later produced his own translation for [[Oxford University Press|Oxford]]'s ''[[Sacred Books of the East]]''.<ref name=legge/>

Other notable English translations of the ''Tao Te Ching'' are those produced by Chinese scholars and teachers: a 1948 translation by linguist [[Lin Yutang]], a 1961 translation by author [[John Ching Hsiung Wu]], a 1963 translation by sinologist [[D. C. Lau|Din Cheuk Lau]], another 1963 translation by professor [[Wing-tsit Chan]], and a 1972 translation by [[Taoism|Taoist]] teacher [[Gia-Fu Feng]] together with his wife [[Jane English]].

Many translations are written by people with a foundation in Chinese language and philosophy who are trying to render the original meaning of the text as faithfully as possible into English. Some of the more popular translations are written from a less scholarly perspective, giving an individual author's interpretation. Critics of these versions claim that their translators deviate from the text and are incompatible with the history of Chinese thought.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/1205252 ''The Journal of Religion'']</ref> Russell Kirkland goes further to argue that these versions are based on Western [[Orientalism|Orientalist]] fantasies and represent the colonial appropriation of Chinese culture.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kirkland.myweb.uga.edu/rk/pdf/pubs/pres/TENN97.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070102000401/http://kirkland.myweb.uga.edu/rk/pdf/pubs/pres/TENN97.pdf |archivedate=2 January 2007 |title=The Taoism of the Western Imagination and the Taoism of China: De-Colonizing the Exotic Teachings of the East }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Russell Kirkland|title=Taoism: The Enduring Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gg0XCJcGDhYC&pg=PP1|year=2004|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-203-64671-7|page=1}}</ref> Other Taoism scholars, such as Michael LaFargue<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0791436004&id=9Td7s_urErUC&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&ots=ENwZI7oEjr&dq=&sig=e6D1T_Ls3owaWMd8sSdqmgN4t8s#PPP1,M1]{{dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref> and Jonathan Herman,<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/1466152 Review of ''Tao Te Ching: A Book about the Way and the Power of the Way'' by Ursula K. Le Guin], ''Journal of the American Academy of Religion'', 66 (1998), pp. 686–689</ref> argue that while they don't pretend to scholarship, they meet a real spiritual need in the West. These Westernized versions aim to make the wisdom of the Tao Te Ching more accessible to modern English-speaking readers by, typically, employing more familiar cultural and temporal references.

===Translational difficulties===
{{refimprove section|date=January 2018}}
The ''Tao Te Ching'' is written in [[Classical Chinese]], which poses a number of challenges to complete comprehension. As Holmes Welch notes, the written language "has no active or passive, no singular or plural, no case, no person, no tense, no mood."<ref>{{harvp|Welch|1965| p=9}}</ref> Moreover, the received text lacks many [[grammatical particle]]s which are preserved in the older Mawangdui and Beida texts, which permit the text to be more precise.<ref>{{harvp|Henricks|1989|p=xvi}}</ref> Lastly, many passages of the ''Tao Te Ching'' are deliberately vague and ambiguous.

Since there are no [[punctuation marks]] in Classical Chinese, it can be difficult to conclusively determine where one sentence ends and the next begins. Moving a full-stop a few words forward or back or inserting a comma can profoundly alter the meaning of many passages, and such divisions and meanings must be determined by the translator. Some editors and translators argue that the received text is so corrupted (from originally being written on one-line bamboo strips linked with silk threads) that it is impossible to understand some chapters without moving sequences of characters from one place to another.

==Notable translations==
<!--order by year-->
* {{citation |author=[[Laozi]] |display-authors=0 |editor-last=Julien |editor-first=Stanislas |editor-link=Stanislas Julien |url=https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=Ll5TAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover |title=Le Livre de la Voie et de la Vertu |location=Paris |publisher=Imprimerie Royale |year=1842 |ref={{harvid|Julien|1842}} }}. {{in lang|fr}}
* {{citation |author=[[Laozi]] |display-authors=0 |url=https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=yxFBAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover |editor-last=Chalmers |editor-first=John |editor-link=John Chalmers (missionary) |title=The Speculations on Metaphysics, Polity, and Morality of the "Old Philosopher" Lau-tsze |ref={{harvid|Chalmers|1868}} |date=1868 |location=London |publisher=Trübner & Co. }}
* {{citation |author=[[Laozi]] |display-authors=0 |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/23974 |editor-last=Legge |editor-first=James |editor-link=James Legge |title=The Tao Teh King |series=''[[Sacred Books of the East]]'', Vol. XXXIX, ''[[Sacred Books of China]]'', Vol. V |ref={{harvid|Legge & al.|1891}} |date=1891 |editor2-last=Müller |editor2-first=Max |editor2-link=Max Müller |display-editors=1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford }}.
* {{citation |author=[[Laozi]] |display-authors=0 |editor-last=Giles |editor-first=Lionel |editor-link=Lionel Giles |title=[[:s:The Sayings of Lao Tzu|The Sayings of Lao Tzu]] |year=1905 |location=New York |publisher=E.P. Dutton & Co. |editor2=L. Cranmer-Byng |editor3=S.A. Kapadia |display-editors=1 |ref={{harvid|Giles & al.|1905}} |series=''The Wisdom of the East'' }}
* {{citation |author=[[Laozi]] |display-authors=0 |editor-last=Suzuki |editor-first=Daisetsu Teitaro |editor-link=D.T. Suzuki |year=1913 |ref={{harvid|Suzuki & al.|1913}} |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/tao/crv/ |editor2=Paul Carus |display-editors=1 |title=The Canon of Reason and Virtue: Lao-tze's Tao Teh King |publisher=Open Court |location=La Salle }}.
* {{citation |author=[[Laozi]] |display-authors=0 |editor-last=Wieger |editor-first=Léon |editor-link=Léon Wieger |title=[[:s:fr:Les pères du système taoiste|Les Pères du Système Taoiste]] |series=''Taoïsme'', Vol. II |year=1913 |publisher=Hien Hien |ref={{harvid|Wieger|1913}} }} {{in lang|fr}}.
* {{Citation|last=Mitchell|first=Stephen|title=Tao Te Ching: A New English Version|url=https://books.google.dk/books?id=esUrAbMWAa4C&printsec=frontcover&hl=en&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1988|authorlink=Stephen Mitchell (translator)|place=New York|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=9780061807398}}.
*{{Citation |first=Robert G. |last=Henricks | title=Lao-tzu: Te-tao ching. A New Translation Based on the Recently Discovered Ma-wang-tui Texts | publisher=Ballantine Books | location=New York | year=1989 | isbn=0-345-34790-0}}
*{{citation |title= Tao Te Ching |last= Lau |first= D. C.|year=1989|publisher=Chinese University Press|location=Hong Kong |isbn= 9789622014671}}
* {{citation |author=[[Laozi]] |display-authors=0 |title=Tao Te Ching: The Classic Book of Integrity and the Way |url=https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=uE7thB_vwQQC&printsec=frontcover |editor-last=Mair |editor-first=Victor H. |editor-link=Victor H. Mair |year=1990 |publisher=Bantam Books |location=New York |ref={{harvid|Mair|1990}} }}.
* {{citation |author=[[Laozi]] |display-authors=0 |url=https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=aMLE056g6MsC&printsec=frontcover |title=Tao-Te-Ching |editor-last=Bryce |editor-first=Derek |editor2=Léon Wieger |display-editors=1 |publisher=Samuel Weiser |location=York Beach |year=1991 |ref={{harvid|Bryce & al.|1991}} }}.
*Addiss, Stephen and Lombardo, Stanley (1991) ''Tao Te Ching,'' Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company.

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=27em}} 
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
* [[Huahujing]]
* [[Huainanzi]]
* [[Liezi]]
* [[Qingjing Jing]]
* [[Xishengjing]]
* [[Zhuangzi (book)|''Zhuangzi'' (book)]]
{{colend}}

==Notes==
{{noteslist}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== Sources ===
<!--order by surname-->
* Ariel, Yoav, and Gil Raz. "Anaphors or Cataphors? A Discussion of the Two qi 其 Graphs in the First Chapter of the Daodejing." PEW 60.3 (2010): 391–421
* {{citation |first=William |last=Boltz |chapter=''Lao tzu Tao-te-ching'' |editor-first=Michael |editor-last=Loewe |editor-link=Michael Loewe |display-editors=0 |title=Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide |pages=269–92 |year=1993 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=1-55729-043-1 }}.
* {{citation |last=Chan |first=Alan |year=2013 |contribution=Laozi |contribution-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/laozi/ |url=http://plato.stanford.edu |title=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |location=Stanford |publisher=Stanford University |editor-first=Edward N. |editor-last=Zalta |display-editors=0 }}.
* Cole, Alan, "Simplicity for the Sophisticated: ReReading the Daode Jing for the Polemics of Ease and Innocence," in History of Religions, August 2006, pp.&nbsp;1–49
* Damascene, Hieromonk, Lou Shibai, and You-Shan Tang. ''Christ the Eternal Tao''. Platina, CA: Saint Herman Press, 1999.
* {{citation |last=Eliade |first=Mircea |title=A History of Religious Ideas |volume=2 |translator-first=Willard R. |translator-last=Trask |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1984}}
* Kaltenmark, Max. ''Lao Tzu and Taoism''. Translated by Roger Greaves. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1969.
* Klaus, Hilmar ''Das Tao der Weisheit. Laozi-Daodejing.'' English + German introduction, 140 p. bibliogr., 3 German transl. Aachen: ''Mainz'' 2008, 548 p.
* Klaus, Hilmar ''The Tao of Wisdom. Laozi-Daodejing.'' Chinese-English-German. 2 verbatim + 2 analogous transl., 140 p. bibl., Aachen: ''Mainz'' 2009 600p.
* {{citation |last=Kohn |first=Livia |author2=Michael LaFargue |display-authors=1 |ref={{harvid|Kohn & al.|1998}} |contribution=Editors' Introduction |pp=1–22 |contribution-url=https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=NXdzosdR0JUC&pg=PA1 |editor-last=Kohn |editor-first=Livia |editor2=Michael LaFargue |display-editors=0 |url=https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=NXdzosdR0JUC&printsec=frontcover |title=Lao-tzu and the Tao-te-ching |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |date=1998 }}.
* Komjathy, Louis. ''Handbooks for Daoist Practice''. 10 vols. Hong Kong: Yuen Yuen Institute, 2008.
* {{citation |last2=Pas |first2=Julian |author-first=Michael |author-last=LaFargue |display-authors=1 |ref={{harvid|LaFargue & al.|1998}} |contribution=On Translating the ''Tao-te-ching'' |pp=277–302 |contribution-url=https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=NXdzosdR0JUC&pg=PA277 |editor-last=Kohn |editor-first=Livia |editor2=Michael LaFargue |display-editors=0 |url=https://books.google.co.jp/books?id=NXdzosdR0JUC&printsec=frontcover |title=Lao-tzu and the Tao-te-ching |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |date=1998 }}.
* {{citation |last=Welch |first=Holmes |title=Taoism: The Parting of the Way |orig-year=1957 |location=Boston |publisher=Beacon Press |year=1965}}

==External links==
{{external links|date=January 2014}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource}}
{{wikisourcelang|zh|道德經|Dàodéjīng}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001732/http://www.daoistcenter.org/daodejing.html Daode jing entry from the Center for Daoist Studies]
*[http://ctext.org/dao-de-jing Daodejing Wang Bi edition with English translation], [http://ctext.org/guodian Guodian text], and [http://ctext.org/mawangdui Mawangdui text] – [[Chinese Text Project]]
* {{librivox book | dtitle=Tao Te Ching |stitle=Tao |author=Laozi}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140512000603/http://www.idiocentrism.com/china.author.htm The Authorship of the Tao Te Ching], John J. Emerson
*{{curlie|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Taoism/Texts/Tao_Te_Ching/|Tao Te Ching}}
*[http://www.goldenelixir.com/publications/eot_daode_jing.html Daode jing] (Isabelle Robinet), entry in ''The Encyclopedia of Taoism''
*[https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL9Ase-0XWr8Sodz7Y2MGzhYgfGIpsvMyO New Version with Audio]

===Other online translations===
*[https://cpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/u.osu.edu/dist/5/25851/files/2016/02/taoteching-Stephen-Mitchell-translation-v9deoq.pdf Stephen Mitchell's translation]
*[http://www.yellowbridge.com/onlinelit/daodejing.php Legge, Suzuki, and Goddard's translations side-by-side, along with the original text]
*[https://wordandsilence.com/category/tao-te-ching/ The recent translations of Red Pine, Thomas Cleary, and Moss Roberts side-by-side]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/tao/ttx/ttx02.htm The Tao Te Ching], [[Frederic H. Balfour]]
*[http://www.daoisopen.com/BYNina.html Translation by Nina Correa]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/oto/lib157.htm The Tao Teh King], [[Aleister Crowley]]
*[http://www.acmuller.net/con-dao/daodejing.html Daode Jing], [[Charles Muller]]
*[http://www.ln.edu.hk/econ/staff/daodejing%2822%20August%202002%29.pdf The Living Dao: The Art and Way of Living a Rich & Truthful Life], Lok Sang Ho, Lingnan University
*[http://www.tao-te-king.org 老子 Lǎozǐ 道德經 Dàodéjīng Wáng Bì 王弼, Pīnyīn 拼音, analysis, verbatim, analogous, poetic, comments, notes], Hilmar Alquiros
*{{Cite book| last = Dima Monsky| first = Sarita La Cubanita| title = Dao De Ching ANT (Adaptation is Not Translation)| accessdate = 16 January 2019| date = 13 November 2018| url = https://archive.org/details/DaoDeChing}}
*[http://www.vincentpoon.com/laozi-tao-te-ching--i-.html KS Vincent Poon's line-by-line interpretation of Tao Te Ching (Wang Bi edition, 王弼版本) , along with Zhang Mosheng's (張默生) vernacular Chinese interpretation]

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